Domestic Civil Defence -
Major Disasters and Their Effects

Major disasters can be loosely classified as 'point' or 'area' disasters, depending on the area that is affected. A rail or air disaster can be lethal, but it is confined to a relatively small area and is over in a short period of time. The Seveso and Flixborough industrial disasters hovered on the edge of being 'area' disasters, but the Lockerbie disaster was an area disaster for the town of Lockerbie. Bhopal was most certainly an area disaster, but most area disasters can occur only in widespread snowstorms, fires, floods, wars, earthquakes, major landslides / avalanches and hurricanes.

The writer has experienced the after-effects of two air-disasters, one flood, two violent storms, two chemical escapes (industrial disasters), three heavy snowfalls and one industrial fire. The effects of two Foot and Mouth outbreaks and their safety procedures were also witnessed at first hand.

Local authorities tend to be well-organised and prepared for the last major disaster that came along, but only a few are genuinely flexible enough to cope with all crises. Householders should be prepared to cope for themselves and not expect immediate assistance. In a few depressing cases, local authority assistance has been appallingly meagre; flooding in the lowlands of Yorkshire near Selby is fairly frequent, but some communities founbd themselves left to rot, months after events that they had no control over.

The Effects of Disasters :

Disasters have a range of problems associated with them. :-

• Floods : Perhaps the most damaging. Flooding can put water mains, electricity and gas services, telephones, roads, mains drainage and refuse-collection out of action for days to weeks. However, areas affected by flooding are predictable. 1947 Thames Floods - An Example
• Tornados and Violent Storms : Although rare in Britain, these are becoming more frequent due to the instability triggered by global warming. They can cause all seven of the main problems listed and over considerable areas and periods.
• Heavy Snow : An increasingly common problem in many parts of northern Britain. The writer experienced severe winters in 1962/3, 1976/7, 1995 and 2003, with snow over half a metre deep that shut side-roads for days. Power failure, road blockage, phones out of order and other problems, frequently occur.
• Extensive Fires : Generally unusual in towns and cities (but air disasters can cause them, e.g. Lockerbie) rural areas in drought or woodland regularly have to consider the threat of fire, malicious or accidental. Evacuation can be needed. Simple precautions, the provision of fire-beaters and early extinguishing, can prevent major disaster.
• Industrial Disasters : The obvious examples of hazards are to those near major chemical works and oil refineries, but the less-obvious are chemical stores (e.g. Salford, Ellesmere Port) and overturned rail and road tankers of poisonous or inflammable chemicals. The risk to local people is severe, certainly needing doors and windows to be kept shut for a time against contamination, in some cases even involving evacuation of local people and decontamination under medical supervision. If the threat is there, then householders may wish to make special arrangements before the event.
• Transport Disasters : People near major roads and railways on occasion find their property hit by lorries and trains, or have to respond to their effects. This may involve being evacuated owing to the threat from spilled dangerous substances, or even having to assist rescue efforts with anything from food, drink and shelter to treating injuries and manning a phone. Air disasters are rather more widespread in risk; the worst examples (e.g. Lockerbie, Staines, Stockport) are where aircraft debris and fuel hit buildings and homes, with the effect of a localised bombing raid. Lives, properties and utility services can be wrecked.

Problems and Solutions :

Floods :
There are many houses in flood zones within Britain. The most regular flooding rivers are the Severn, the Trent, the Calder, the Aire and the Wharfe, whilst parts of the Wash in East Anglia are below the level of adjacent rivers. Any land reclaimed from the sea is also vulnerable to flooding when storm tides breach sea-walls. Although now heavily embanked and fitted with flood-gates, the Thames at London used to flood. In addition to these, unscrupulous developers have built on fields that flood from relatively minor water-courses, without correcting the hazard.

Flood damage can affect walls, plaster, floors and foundations, but its most common damage is the destruction of carpets, furniture, books and electrical goods.

First and foremost, when you buy a house in a possible flood-plain area, get your solicitor to check the history of flooding ion the area. Then check the cost of flood insurance. If you are forced to occupy a building that is in a flood-risk zone, ask locals about the heights of previous floods and consider the effects on you and your posessions. The writer knows of an area in the middle of Dumfries where the shops and public houses cannot get flood insurance and the residents have had to learn to live with the problem.

The writer recently visited North and West Norfolk, where there has been a steadily-increasing flood problem from storm surges and very high tides. The Church of St. Margaret in King's Lynn has a number of flood marks on its porch. Further towards the River Ouse, the houses have flood-shuttering and high flood-gates that can be closed in time of hazard. The important point is that they have worked.

1. Architectural solutions :
   Design the ground floor decor so that flooding will cause the least damage - granolithic floors and tiled floors are easily cleaned and walls rendered to just above flood height are easiest to clean. Furnishings should be designed to be removable upstairs, even if some pieces have to be bolted in place normally. Ensure that wiring is in ducts in the upper part of the walls or even in the ceiling - wiring can 'drop down' to switches and plugs above flood level. Try to arrange for the fuse-box and meter to be upstairs on a landing, and for the mains electric cable to run to that height.
2. Coffer-Dams for Doorways and Sandbags for Airbricks :
   Install vertical channelling outside ground-level outer doors on each side-frame (door jamb) to take planking or panelling for coffer-dams. Go up to the height of the ground floor windowsills. Cut planks or panelling to length, varnish or waterproof paint them. Obtain heavy-duty plastic sheeting and waterproof tape to waterproof the outer face of the assembled dam of planks or panelling. Obtain a stock of sandbags to seal the doors at their bases inside and outside - as many as twenty may be needed for each door. Consider using blocks or boxes of clay or earth to act as ballast against the inside face of the door behind the coffer dam. N.B. : Water seeps through bags of sand. Water does not seep through bags of clay or sandy clay.
   Remember to 'chimney' sandbag ground-floor toilets, and to sandbag airbricks, as these may admit water and cause rapid flooding behind your coffer-dammed doors. Basically, anything with an opening below windowsill level should be blocked off, preferably with a small close-fitting panel and a sandbag laid outside, so water pressure holds them in place.

1. Removable Floor Covering :
   Carpet tiles are easier to lift and replace or repair than fitted carpets. Carpet replacement is one of the single biggest headaches of flooding insurance.
2. Keep 'White Goods' on the upper floor if possible :
   Freezers, cookers, fridges, microwaves, televisions, washing machines, computer equipment and radios, are all ruined by flooding. Taking precautions will help you to argue for a reduction in flood insurance premiums.
3. Keep important papers, books and clothes upstairs :
   This obvious precaution is easily forgotten and can be disastrous when sorting out paperwork for insurance claims. Photographs, books and documents, can be easily destroyed and can add to the trauma for a family. Loss of clothing is not merely inconvenient but also serious; floods can cause rapid destitution for the unprepared.
4. Keep essential supplies upstairs :
   If the power fails and you are liable to be trapped upstairs, make sure that you have a week's worth of clean cooking and drinking water to hand, plus food and some camping stove or other means to cook it. Gas fuelled lights, heaters and stoves, may prove excellent investments. If your property is in an isolated area, consider fitting a CB radio in case mobile and line telephones fail. A bucket toilet (Elsan or improvised) may also be worth having.
5. Have a flood plan :
   In case of a flood alert, move vulnerable dependents (children, the elderly) to a rest centre or to friends and relatives on higher ground. If possible, leave vehicles parked on higher ground, preferably in a secure parking area. Move any furniture, floor coverings and supplies upstairs, rig coffer-dams and take any other reasonable steps to protect the property. Evacuate if need be, or stay in place and be ready to bail out leakages if limited flooding is expected. If evacuated, on return carry out any clearing up and take inventory of any losses through flood or theft. Make sure any paths or driveways are swept and washed clean of any slime or mud, as this may be polluted with sewage. Be prepared to drink or cook with bottled water and to boil tapwater against any contamination.

It is conceded that this plan does not allow for the needs of those in bungalows or static caravans (in USA, trailer homes). In that situation, make arrangements with friends or relatives to move valuables and some at least of the furniture to storage in property above the probable flood-level. Bungalows can offer some protection against moderate flooding if well coffer-dammed, but ground-floor toilets and airbricks may admit water and cause rapid flooding if left unprotected.

Tornadoes and Violent Storms :
A tornado can have windspeeds of up to 200 miles per hour and may have an effect on a town similar to a planeload of bombs dropped in a line. Roofs can be wrecked, walls can be flattened and windows blown into or out of a building. Vehicles and trees can be overturned, power and telephone lines brought down. However, tornadoes do have some degree of predictability. The key aspect is to shelter against the worst effects and then to evacuate into unaffected areas.

Most tornadoes in Britain have occurred in the Midlands and East Anglia during warm weather that has turned stormy. The best place to be in a tornado is out of its line of travel; keeping the television on is an American solution to getting warning from the intense static produced by powerful tornadoes. Failing that, many American homes have a strongly-built room that can serve as a 'storm cellar', although some Americans have survived by taking refuge in bathtubs. This suggests that a steel or wooden shelter design like the World War II Morrison table shelter might be a good idea - a rigid framework box that held bedding and up to four occupants. The steel design is available, but may cost about £ 500 for steel, so it is questionable whether the outlay for infrequent tornadoes would be worth it.

Violent windstorms or 'hurricanes' are more probable in Britain than severe tornadoes. The infamous 1987 wind storms that devastated parts of South East England blocked roads with trees and debris, blew out windows and ripped roofs off houses. The most severe aspect was widespread power failure and telephone breakdowns, which made it difficult for those in need to obtain help. Many communities failed to consider organising themselves and lead a somewhat miserable existence, short of cooking and lighting facilities.

Heavy Snow and Freezing Weather :

Heavy snow occurs most frequently in Britain during winters when Arctic winds come in from the direction of Iceland and Greenland. The most recent major snowfalls to affect large parts of Britain occurred in 1949, 1963, 1975, 1995 and 2003. There are even more frequent periods of heavy snowfall in the English Pennines, the Welsh Mountains and the Scottish Highlands. The indications are that global warming may lead to warmer weather, but also extremes of temperature and humidity. Britain may also be affected by continental cold air, which may not cause heavy snowfalls (except in East Anglia and the Northe East coast) but which can cause quite severe freezing spells.

The consequences of heavy snow can be isolation, even in fairly urban areas, from shops, jobs and emergency services. Matters are at their worst when frozen snow brings down power-lines and telephone lines. Parts of Cornwall and Norfolk have been isolated for days to weeks, whilst in the Highlands isolation can last weeks. Frost is well known for the way it can freeze poorly-insulated pipework solid, opening pipe-joints or splitting pipes open so that houses are later flooded. Less commonly, sustained hard frosts can actually freeze the underground pipes from public water-mains to houses. Power failures, water cutoffs and telephone failures, are not uncommon in winter weather.

Extensive Fires :
An increase in global warming does make these increasingly likely in extremes of weather such as droughts. The writer experienced three very dry summers in which heath fires occurred. Whilst one should be vigilant in preventing fires, putting out small ones and reporting them to the Fire Brigade promptly, they are in general harder for the householder to deal with than are floods. A line fire can 'jump' roads and narrow firebreaks by carrying burning debris onto dry grass and fir trees; the only option then is evacuation, so KNOW THE ROADS AND TRACKS AROUND YOUR HOME. If one route is blocked, have another to hand. Move across and downwind, not straight downwind. If on foot, cross ploughed or grazing land rather than woods, heathlands or fields of standing crops such as grain.

Although rare in Britain except in wars, extensive fires in towns can occur and may spread rapidly in shopping centres (malls) and precincts. The rule for you is to evacuate outwards then round into an open space upwind of the fire. DO NOT EVACUATE INTO UNDERGROUND OR MULTI-STOREY CAR PARKS. A car stopped in a car park in the middle of a fire zone will burn and may explode like a petrol-bomb. Burning plastic from furnishings and clothes stores can generate dangerous toxic fumes that can kill you faster than normal smoke.

Industrial Disasters :
These have increased in scale and frequency throughout the developed and developing world. Seveso, Flixborough, Bhopal, are just a few examples of the kinds of chemical industry disaster that have injured or maimed tens to thousands of people. Hazards from radioactivity have been carefully watched for, so incidents such as Chernobyl are thankfully rare, although small-scale radiological disasters have occurred in Brazil and Algeria through incorrect disposal of hospital radiation sources.
The writer is of the opinion that living beside a major refinery or chemical works is significantly more dangerous than living beside a heavily-protected nuclear reactor being watched by organisations such as Greenpeace. Unfortunately, because refineries and chemical works have been in being for far longer than nuclear reactors, they have not attracted the same degree of public concern.

Those living within a mile of oil refineries, major chemical works and explosives works, would be well advised to draughtproof their homes and have the means to seal off ventilation systems in case of an escape of a toxic chemical. Schools and offices should consider taking similar safety precautions. Householders within eye-view of a refinery or a chemical works might consider keeping some kind of breathing-mask and protective clothing to hand, in case of evacuation during a sustained refinery fire or chemical release. It is conceded that this policy will not be popular with all site operators, but taking reasonable safety precautions is better than counting casualties.

Transport Disasters :
The past twenty years have seen a rise in transport disasters, due mainly to increases in traffic and economic pressures on operators. The householder can be at risk by being beside major roads, under air-lanes or beside railway lines, or aboard affected transport. The risks are of injury from vehicles crashing, fires from escaping fuels or the release of chemicals and other hazardous material from material being transported. In an extreme case - for example, a burning road or rail tanker or an aircraft crashing just after take-off - there is a risk of extensive explosions as burning and evaporating fuels escape and mix with air. Chemical escapes can be as dangerous as a World War One poison gas attack. Marine disasters are by and large outside the remit of this section, although the escape of oil from the ruptured tanks of oil-tankers has caused contamination and ecological damage.

Disaster Appraisal :

Consider the actual frequency of events occurring in your area and the amount of traffic. The personal risk from a crashing vehicle is actually less than being affected by escapes of poisonous gases or the fumes from fires caused by the crash. The writer witnessed the aftermath of a major air-disaster and has studied a number of other transport disasters; double and secondary glazing, with good draughtproofing and a good household fire plan, are the factors that protect against serious injury. Those are of obvious benefit (noise abatement and safety) for those living beside road or railway embankments or in front of or beside airport runways. A further protection could be a built-in 'storm cellar' in the form of a reinforced room with a strengthened ceiling and shuttered windows, but that would only be reasonable if there was warning beforehand.

Improvised Equipment and Emergency Information :-

[Shelter Room] [Tornado Shelter] [Fire Plan] [Flood Protection]
[Rest Centres] [Safety at Transport Incidents] [First Aid]